La frase "distintividad de marca" generalmente se refiere al lugar donde una marca particular se encuentra en el "continuo" o "espectro" de distintividad, según lo estipulado en la ley de marcas de EE. UU.
En términos simples, las marcas que son genéricas o descriptivas por naturaleza carecen inherentemente de distintividad de marca y, por lo tanto, no están protegidas bajo la ley de marcas.
Sin embargo, las marcas que son sugestivas, arbitrarias o inventadas se consideran inherentemente distintivas, y por ende, cuentan con protecciones de propiedad intelectual.
En este artículo, exploraremos los fundamentos del espectro de distintividad de marca y cómo la distintividad se relaciona con la uerza relativa de una marca en particular.
Es recomendable revisar tu marca con un abogado antes de intentar registrarla en la USPTO.
Si bien la información legal descrita a continuación es útil para marcas de naturaleza arbitraria o inventada, es prudente analizar tus opciones si deseas registrar una marca que se sitúa en el área gris entre lo sugestivo y lo meramente descriptivo.
Un Vistazo Rápido al Espectro de Distintividad de Marca
Este gráfico muestra el espectro de distintividad de marca. Cuanto más a la derecha esté tu marca, es más probable que sea distintiva frente a la competencia.
Todas las marcas existen en un espectro de distintividad que se correlaciona directamente con la fortaleza de las protecciones de propiedad intelectual que se otorgan a la marca.
Este espectro de distintividad se puede dividir en varias secciones, cada una proporcionando niveles progresivamente más fuertes de distintividad y protecciones de marca:
- Genéricas — Marcas que utilizan el nombre común para un producto o servicio en particular.
- Descriptivas — Marcas que describen un atributo particular de un producto o servicio.
- Sugestivas — Marcas que sugieren o insinúan un atributo particular de un producto o servicio.
- Arbitrarias — Marcas que no tienen correlación con el producto o servicio al que están asociadas.
- Fantasiosas — Marcas completamente inventadas que no tienen un significado formal en el idioma fuera de su uso como marca.
A continuación, detallaremos cada una de estas categorías de distintividad.
Sin embargo, ten en cuenta que todas las marcas existen en un espectro subjetivo de distintividad, y no existen pautas estrictas sobre dónde trazar la línea entre cada categoría.
Es fundamental elegir una marca que esté lo más lejos posible de lo descriptivo, ya que las marcas descriptivas no reciben protecciones legales bajo la ley de marcas.
Genéricas
El término "marca genérica" generalmente se refiere a aquellas marcas que usan el nombre común de un producto o servicio en lugar de intentar diferenciarse de la competencia.
Por ejemplo, una tienda podría vender una bolsa con las palabras "Tortilla Chips" como opción genérica. Sin embargo, sería imposible obtener protecciones de marca para dicha marca.
Es importante destacar que esta es una de las razones por las cuales las formas "genéricas" de medicamentos (como el acetaminofén en lugar de Tylenol) son relativamente comunes y más baratas que sus competidores con marcas registradas, ya que pueden producirse y venderse a precios mayoristas sin necesidad de un presupuesto de marketing o gastos administrativos adicionales.
Desde un punto de vista legal, nunca es ventajoso comercializar tu negocio bajo un nombre genérico porque (1) no proporciona ninguna protección de propiedad intelectual y (2) no ofrece una ventaja competitiva que ayude a que tu negocio se destaque de tus competidores.
Calificación de Marca: Nunca debes usar un nombre de producto o servicio genérico para comercializar tu marca
Descriptiva
Las marcas descriptivas generalmente incluyen palabras o frases que describen un atributo central de una marca, producto o servicio de manera que genera una comparación o cualificación directa de ese atributo.
En la mayoría de los casos, las marcas descriptivas no pueden obtener protecciones de marca, excepto en aquellos donde la marca invierte una cantidad considerable de tiempo, esfuerzo y recursos para lograr que la palabra o frase adquiera un "significado secundario" en relación con la marca principal.
Por ejemplo, American Airlines (una aerolínea que brinda servicios en las Américas) e International Business Machines (IBM) (una empresa de TI y consultoría) son marcas descriptivas que han obtenido protecciones de marca con el tiempo al adquirir dicho significado secundario.
En términos simples, si una marca descriptiva se usa y promociona exclusivamente como si fuera una marca registrada durante un período prolongado, esa marca puede ganar un significado secundario relacionado con la marca y, por lo tanto, ser registrada como marca principal.
Sin embargo, debes tener en cuenta que esta es una estrategia inherentemente arriesgada debido a la dificultad relativa y el costo de lograr un significado secundario para una marca descriptiva.
En general, esta estrategia solo es ventajosa para grandes empresas (como McDonald’s o Johnson & Johnson) que cuentan con los recursos de marketing para obtener reconocimiento nacional para su marca.
Calificación de Marca: Debes evitar las marcas descriptivas a toda costa. Esto se debe a que las marcas descriptivas (incluidas aquellas con apellidos o palabras como "mejor" o "calidad") carecen de distintividad y generalmente no reciben protecciones bajo la ley de marcas sin obtener primero un significado secundario como se describió anteriormente.
Sugestiva
Una marca sugestiva está compuesta por palabras o frases que solo sugieren o insinúan una cualidad particular o un elemento de la marca, producto o servicio sin llegar a describir el producto en sí.
Por ejemplo, la marca "Netflix" se construye mediante una combinación de las palabras "net", que hace referencia a internet, y "flicks", un sinónimo de películas.
Otras marcas sugestivas notables incluyen "Microsoft" (una combinación de "microcomputadora" y "software"), KitchenAid (refiriéndose a productos que brindan "ayuda" en la cocina), y Greyhound buses (refiriéndose al perro de carreras).
En términos simples, las marcas sugestivas están entre las descriptivas y las arbitrarias al solo insinuar una cualidad o atributo relacionado con la marca principal (como "velocidad," "eficiencia" o un componente material como "microcomputadora").
Calificación de Marca: Las marcas sugestivas ofrecen un buen equilibrio entre protecciones de marca significativas y el atractivo comercial, facilitando su marketing al público.
Dicho de otra manera, las pequeñas empresas pueden obtener suficientes protecciones de marca a través de marcas sugestivas sin tener que invertir tantos recursos de marketing para educar al público sobre la marca, producto o servicio.
Aunque las marcas arbitrarias y fantasiosas suelen ser más ventajosas para empresas con mayores presupuestos, las marcas sugestivas representan un buen punto medio para pequeñas y medianas empresas que pueden depender de listados locales y búsquedas como "plomero cerca de mí" para atraer nuevos clientes.
Arbitraria
Una marca arbitraria está compuesta por palabras o frases que tienen un significado común en un idioma determinado, pero sin relación sugestiva o descriptiva con la marca, producto o servicio en cuestión.
Por ejemplo, en inglés, la palabra "banana" no tiene nada que ver con computadoras u otra forma de tecnología.
Por esta razón, si una empresa decidiera llamarse "Banana" y vender computadoras, esta marca sería de naturaleza "arbitraria" debido a la desconexión entre la palabra y el producto.
Algunos ejemplos de marcas arbitrarias comunes incluyen Apple (computadoras), Dove (chocolates), Camel (cigarrillos) y Shell (gasolineras).
Calificación de Marca: Las marcas arbitrarias se consideran inherentemente distintivas (ya que no sugieren ni describen nada sobre el producto o servicio al que se relacionan) y, por lo tanto, poseen fuertes protecciones de marca.
Sin embargo, dado que muchas marcas arbitrarias incluyen palabras relativamente comunes (como "apple" o "camel"), es crucial realizar una búsqueda exhaustiva de marcas registradas para asegurarse de que nadie más haya utilizado o esté utilizando actualmente la palabra o frase en una industria similar.
Fantasiosa o Inventada
Una marca fantasiosa o inventada solo adquiere significado cuando se aplica a los productos y la marca de un negocio en particular.
En otras palabras, son palabras o frases "inventadas" únicamente como herramienta de marketing y no tienen definición o significado fuera del contexto de la marca, producto o servicio.
Algunos ejemplos famosos de marcas fantasiosas incluyen "Xerox" para fotocopiadoras o "Nikon" para equipos eléctricos de precisión.
Para ampliar esto, las marcas fantasiosas suelen ser errores ortográficos, abreviaturas o juegos de palabras utilizados para comercializar la marca de manera divertida o interesante.
El nombre Nikon, por ejemplo, es una abreviatura occidentalizada del nombre original completo de la compañía que usó para comercializar equipos de cámara en las décadas de 1930 y 1940.
Específicamente, "Japan Optical Industries Corporation" (日本光学工業株式会社) se convirtió en "Nikkō" (日光), que luego fue occidentalizado a "Nikon."
Calificación de Marca: Las marcas fantasiosas o inventadas están en el extremo más alto del espectro de distintividad y reciben la mayor protección bajo la ley de marcas.
Sin embargo, también puede tomar una cantidad significativa de tiempo, dinero y esfuerzo comercializar una marca fantasiosa o inventada al público, ya que presentan una barrera mayor para el reconocimiento de marca.
Por qué la distintividad de marca es importante?
La distintividad de marca es el elemento más importante para determinar la solidez de tus derechos de propiedad intelectual.
En términos simples, la distintividad de marca es crucial porque es el primer paso en el proceso legal para obtener protecciones de propiedad intelectual para tu marca, producto o servicio.
Específicamente, el proceso para obtener protecciones de marca para tu negocio generalmente sigue un camino lógico:
- Determina si la marca es lo suficientemente distintiva como para causar confusión en los consumidores si otra marca comenzara a utilizarla. Si es así:
- Realiza un análisis de costo-beneficio para determinar si tu negocio se beneficiaría al registrar la marca como una marca registrada. Si es así:
- Intenta registrar la marca en el Registro Principal para obtener protecciones de marca para tu negocio. Si tienes éxito:
- Presenta una combinación de la Declaración de Uso de la Sección 8 y la Declaración de Incontestabilidad de la Sección 15 después de cinco años de uso continuo para demostrar que la marca sigue utilizándose en el comercio y para obtener protecciones de incontestabilidad para tu marca (una forma significativamente más sólida de protección de PI). Después de eso:
- Presenta otra Declaración de Uso de la Sección 8 así como un formulario de Renovación de Registro de la Sección 9 después de diez años de uso continuo para renovar tu marca. Luego, renueva tu uso cada diez años a partir de entonces.
Observa cómo todo el proceso se basa en la idea de reducir la confusión del consumidor al ofrecer protecciones a las marcas que son distintivas frente a sus competidores.
This idea of protecting the consumer is central to the entire legal framework surrounding trademarks, as making sure that consumers can be confident that the products and services they are purchasing are authentic is the whole point of trademark law.
In the same fashion, ensuring that your brand is distinct from your competitors is a great way to foster consumer confidence in your brand and an excellent way to build a loyal audience over time.
However, all of this starts with ensuring that your trademark is distinct enough to fall under the suggestive, arbitrary, or fanciful categories, as these are the only ones that are offered protections under current U.S. trademark law.
Polaroid Factors and How to Determine the Strength of Your Trademark
Courts will consider several variables (such as the ones outlined in the Polaroid and DuPont factors below) in trademark infringement cases. Working backwards from these factors can help you choose a strong mark.
As we've stated numerous times throughout this article, trademark distinctiveness is the most important thing to keep in mind when determining the strength of your mark.
However, it can sometimes be difficult to determine how distinct a mark is in the grand scheme of things.
This is where case law comes in.
Specifically, in 1961 the U.S. Court of Appeals Second Circuit ruled on Polaroid Corp. v. Polarad Elecs. Corp., 287 F.2d 492, 495 (2d Cir. 1961).
In this case, the Polaroid Corporation (the owner of the "Polaroid" trademark and 22 other similar registrations) brought an action against Polarad Electronics Corporation, stating that the Polarad brand was too similar to their own (i.e. "not distinct") and resulted in consumer confusion.
The crux of the case was the question of whether the Polarad's electronics products (microwave ovens and television sets) strayed too close to Polaroid's camera equipment.
However, the case also brought up a larger point of "how do we qualify distinctiveness" in cases where two brands operate in similar, though distinct, spaces.
The answer, in this case at least, is to look at the sum of a number of factors to determine if the strength of the prior mark.
Specifically:
Where the products are different, the prior owner's chance of success is a function of many variables: the strength of his mark, the degree of similarity between the two marks, the proximity of the products, the likelihood that the prior owner will bridge the gap, actual confusion, and the reciprocal of defendant's good faith in adopting its own mark, the quality of defendant's product, and the sophistication of the buyers. Even this extensive catalogue does not exhaust the possibilities — the court may have to take still other variables into account.
Polaroid Corp. v. Polarad Elecs. Corp., 287 F.2d 492, 495 (2d Cir. 1961)
This quotation lays out eight specific factors (plus the "other variable" note) that courts now refer to as the "Polaroid factors of trademark distinctiveness."
Dupont Factors: Another Way to Test Your Mark's Strength
These factors were then reaffirmed a decade later in Application of E.I. DuPont DeNemours & Co., 476 F.2d 1357, 1361 (C.C.P.A.1973), where the factors were changed slightly into a list of 13 specific factors that courts must consider when determining the likelihood of confusion.
Specifically, when testing for likelihood of confusion the court must consider each of the following factors:
- The similarity or dissimilarity of the marks in their entireties as to appearance, sound, connotation and commercial impression.
- The similarity or dissimilarity and nature of the goods or services as described in an application or registration or in connection with which a prior mark is in use.
- The similarity or dissimilarity of established, likely-to-continue trade channels.
- The conditions under which and buyers to whom sales are made, i. e. "impulse" vs. careful, sophisticated purchasing.
- The fame of the prior mark (sales, advertising, length of use).
- The number and nature of similar marks in use on similar goods.
- The nature and extent of any actual confusion.
- The length of time during and conditions under which there has been concurrent use without evidence of actual confusion.
- The variety of goods on which a mark is or is not used (house mark, "family" mark, product mark).
- The market interface between applicant and the owner of a prior mark: (a) a mere "consent" to register or use; (b) agreement provisions designed to preclude confusion, i. e. limitations on continued use of the marks by each party; (c) assignment of mark, application, registration and good will of the related business; (d) laches and estoppel attributable to owner of prior mark and indicative of lack of confusion.
- The extent to which applicant has a right to exclude others from use of its mark on its goods.
- The extent of potential confusion, i. e., whether de minimis or substantial.
- Any other established fact probative of the effect of use.
Putting it All Together: How to Determine Your Mark's Strength Through Distinctiveness
When determining the relative strength and distinctiveness of your trademark, it's smart to approach the mark from the perspective of these two lists of factors.
For example, drawing from the final two factors on the Polaroid list, what is the relative quality of your product when compared to other products in your industry? What kind of audience are you trying to target with your products, and how likely are they to confuse your product with a different one?
If your product is of a relatively equal quality to the rest of the market and your target audience is more likely to confuse your product with a similar brand (such as if you sell directly to consumers as opposed to more sophisticated buyers in a B2B market), you may need to establish a more distinct (i.e. arbitrary or fanciful) mark simply because a merely suggestive mark may not be enough to set your brand apart.
Put another way, the strength of a trademark can change depending on the context it is used in and the relative distinctiveness of the mark.
The wider your marketing net, the more distinct your trademark will have to be to stand out from the competition.
Or, put another way:
- Generic trademarks are inherently weak because there are no contexts where they are distinct enough to provide protections.
- Descriptive trademarks are inherently weak because marks that are merely descriptive are not offered trademark protections unless they acquire secondary meaning, which generally requires a great deal of time and money to pull off.
- Suggestive trademarks are of a relatively neutral strength, because they can be distinct in most contexts, but may face pressure from competing brands on the national stage.
- Arbitrary trademarks are generally strong as long as no other brand has used the mark in commerce to market a similar product or service. This is because the lack of a relation between the mark and the product or service in question makes the mark inherently distinct in all contexts without a prior use.
- Fanciful or coined marks offer the strongest trademark protections because they are often made-up words with no use or definition outside of marketing your brand, making them inherently distinct and worthy of the strongest protection.
The key takeaway, then, is that your mark's strength is inherently tied to the mark's distinctiveness, which is itself determined through contextual factors such as the sophistication of the audience, the quality or attributes of the product, and the channels and markets you plan on using your mark in.
Arbitrary and fanciful marks are thus preferred because they possess inherent distinctiveness, provided no one else has used the mark in the past.
Meanwhile, suggestive marks generally have to work hard to prove that they are not "merely descriptive" in nature, which would result in the loss of their trademark protections.
Striking the right balance between the legal distinctiveness and marketability of your trademark is key to determining the relative strength of your brand, product, or service.
Trademark Distinctiveness FAQs
Most questions you might have about trademark registration and distinctiveness can be answered with a quick search on the USPTO website, or by speaking with an experienced attorney.
Individuals who want to register a trademark for their brand will often have questions about the process.
For this reason, the USPTO publishes a list of more than 300 FAQs they believe will help individuals who are registering for the first time.
We'll answer a few of the questions we commonly receive below, but please keep in mind that the USPTO publishes regular resources on their website in case you need more specific information about the trademark registration process.
What is trademark distinctiveness?
The term "trademark distinctiveness" refers to a consumer's ability to identify and distinguish a brand, product, or service from its competitors.
Generic and descriptive marks are generally seen as having no distinctiveness, and are thus given no protections under trademark law.
Suggestive, arbitrary, and fanciful marks are seen to have inherent distinctiveness, and thus gain protections under trademark law.
Importantly, distinctiveness is a key element in both the trademark registration process and trademark infringement litigation, as trademark law is based on the idea of reducing consumer confusion by ensuring the products and services of different brands are sufficiently distinct from one another.
Often, this plays out in one of two ways: (1) by ensuring that a mark is suggestive as opposed to descriptive or generic (and thus worthy of trademark protections), and (2) whether two competing marks are confusingly similar.
Why does my trademark have to be distinct?
The USPTO will only allow you to register marks that are distinct in nature, meaning that marks that are generic or descriptive cannot gain protections under U.S. trademark law.
For this reason, any other individual or business can use your mark without repercussions as a direct result of its lack of distinctiveness.
What are trademark classes and how do they relate to distinctiveness?
Generally speaking, your trademark only needs to be distinct within the specific industry you work in.
This is why, for example, Delta Faucets and Delta Airlines can exist at the same time, as one provides bathroom products while the other is an airline service.
The USPTO recognizes 45 individual trademark classes that correspond to all products and services that can be sold in the country.
When you register a new trademark, you'll have to choose one or more of these classes to register under.
Importantly, your trademark protections will only extend to products and services that fall into the classification you file under, meaning that your trademark only needs to be distinct within your target trademark class(es).
How can I tell if my trademark is suggestive or merely descriptive?
You can't. No matter what anyone says, the final determination of whether a trademark is suggestive or descriptive ultimately comes down to the discretion of the USPTO attorney who reviews your application.
Because the process is entirely subjective, it's critical that you always stray on the side of caution and choose a trademark that falls more towards the "arbitrary" side of the suggestive spectrum as opposed to the descriptive side of things.
What's the difference between the principal and supplemental register for trademarks?
Trademarks that are determined to have inherent distinctiveness end up on the USPTO's principal register, and thus gain all of the legal protections offered under U.S. trademark law.
Marks that are determined to be descriptive but have the potential to gain a secondary meaning may instead end up on the supplemental register.
The key difference is that marks on the supplemental register are limited to only the following protections:
- The trademark's owner gains the ability to file trademark infringement lawsuits in federal courts to fight off competing brands.
- The USPTO will not allow other individuals or businesses to register confusingly similar trademarks.
- The trademark will show up in trademark search reports as if it were on the principal register.
- The trademark's owner can use the registered trademark symbol (®) to denote the trademark's status.
Or, put another way, marks on the supplemental register do not have access to the following protections:
- Marks on the supplemental register cannot file for incontestability after five years of use.
- Marks on the supplemental register do not have a statutory presumption of validity, ownership, or distinctiveness (i.e. they have to prove all three in infringement lawsuits in order to be successful).
- Marks on the supplemental register do not have a statutory presumption of the exclusive right to use the mark in commerce.
- U.S. Customs and Border Patrol (CPB) will not prevent the import of goods that infringe on the trademark.
- Federal agencies will not press criminal charges against individuals or businesses who counterfeit the goods (i.e. you are limited to a civil suit).
- You cannot use your registration on the supplemental register as a basis for a foreign trademark registration application.
Key Takeaways
To summarize, you should make sure your trademark is suggestive, arbitrary, or fanciful in nature, and that no other business or brand has used it in your industry, before you register it with the USPTO.
Trademark distinctiveness exists on a spectrum ranging from generic (having no distinctiveness) to fanciful or coined (having no meaning outside of its use as a trademark).
All potential trademarks fall somewhere along this spectrum, as determined at the discretion of the USPTO attorney who reviews your application.
For this reason, it's critical that you choose a mark that falls as far away from the generic/descriptive side of the spectrum as possible.
If you have any questions about the distinctiveness of your mark, it's critical that you speak to an attorney immediately to determine if it's worth registering the mark as a trademark.
As we've shown in this article, the relative distinctiveness of your mark will directly impact the strength of the trademark protections provided to it and your chance of success in a potential future infringement lawsuit.
For this reason, distinctiveness is key towards building a strong brand that can carry your business forward into a successful and profitable future.
Key Resources
Further Reading
- Key Differences Between the Supplemental and Principal Register for Trademarks
- United States Trademark Law: The Ultimate Guide
- What is “Likelihood of Confusion” in Trademark Law?
Other Resources
- Trademark FAQs | USPTO — A publication by the USPTO that provides the answers to more than 300 common questions people have about the trademark registration process.
- Common Problems in Applications | USPTO — A publication by the USPTO that covers a few common problems that new filers face when attempting to register a trademark.
